Pathology

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Pathology

    Urinary Tract Infection

    Posted by: أحمد يوسف / comment : 0 , ,

    A urinary tract infection (UTI) is an infection in any part of your urinary system — your kidneys, ureters, bladder and urethra. Most infections involve the lower urinary tract — the bladder and the urethra.
    Women are at greater risk of developing a UTI than men are. Infection limited to your bladder can be painful and annoying. However, serious consequences can occur if a UTI spreads to your kidneys.
    Causes
    Urinary tract infections typically occur when bacteria enter the urinary tract through the urethra and begin to multiply in the bladder. Although the urinary system is designed to keep out such microscopic invaders, these defenses sometimes fail. When that happens, bacteria may take hold and grow into a full-blown infection in the urinary tract.
    The most common UTIs occur mainly in women and affect the bladder and urethra.
    Risk factors 
    Risk factors for urinary tract infections include:
    • Being female. UTIs are common in women, and many women experience more than one infection. Women have a shorter urethra than men do, which cuts down on the distance that bacteria must travel to reach a woman’s bladder.
    • Being sexually active. Sexually active women tend to have more UTIs than do women who aren’t sexually active.
    • Using certain types of birth control. Women who use diaphragms for birth control also may be at higher risk, as may women who use spermicidal agents.
    • Completing menopause. After menopause, UTIs may become more common because the lack of estrogen causes changes in the urinary tract that make it more vulnerable to infection.
    • Having urinary tract abnormalities. Babies born with urinary tract abnormalities that don’t allow urine to leave the body normally or cause urine to back up in the urethra have an increased risk of UTIs.
    • Having blockages in the urinary tract. Kidney stones or an enlarged prostate can trap urine in the bladder and increase the risk of UTI.
    • Having a suppressed immune system. Diabetes and other diseases that impair the immune system — the body’s defense against germs — can increase the risk of UTIs.
    • Using a catheter to urinate. People who can’t urinate on their own and use a tube (catheter) to urinate have an increased risk of UTIs. This may include people who are hospitalized, people with neurological problems that make it difficult to control their ability to urinate and people who are paralyzed.
    Prevention
    Take these steps to reduce your risk of urinary tract infections:
    • Drink plenty of liquids, especially water. Drinking water helps dilute your urine and ensures that you’ll urinate more frequently — allowing bacteria to be flushed from your urinary tract before an infection can begin.
    • Wipe from front to back. Doing so after urinating and after a bowel movement helps prevent bacteria in the anal region from spreading to the vagina and urethra.
    • Empty your bladder soon after intercourse. Also, drink a full glass of water to help flush bacteria.
    • Avoid potentially irritating feminine products. Using deodorant sprays or other feminine products, such as douches and powders, in the genital area can irritate the urethra.

    Scientists Convert Cancer Cells Into Harmless Immune Cells

    Posted by: أحمد يوسف / comment : 0 , ,

    Laboratory studies do not often go as planned, and while this is usually a source of endless frustration amongst scientists, some wonderful discoveries have been made by accident in the past, such as the pacemaker and penicillin. Now, researchers may have happened upon something that could turn out to be a powerful agent against a particularly aggressive type of cancer.
    After endeavoring to find ways to prevent cancerous cells from dying during experiments, scientists from Stanford have discovered that it is possible to force leukemia cells to mature into a type of immune cell that, ironically, may help the body clear up other tumor cells. The study has been published in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.
    Acute lymphocytic leukemia (ALL) is a rapidly-progressing cancer of the immature cells that differentiate into white blood cells, or lymphocytes. There are several different types of ALL, which are classified based on the type of lymphocyte (B cell or T cell) the cancer originates from, and how mature these cells are.
    For the current study, scientists were investigating the most common type of acute lymphoblastic leukemia, known as as precursor B cell ALL, or B-ALL. As the name suggests, this cancer originates from a rogue B cell that became stuck at an early stage of maturation. These immature cells are unable to fully differentiate into normal B cells, partly because they lost some cellular molecules, known as transcription factors, which are required for their development. Transcription factors are proteins that stick to bits of DNA and then switch certain genes on or off.
    B-ALL is a particularly aggressive cancer with a poor prognosis, so scientists from Stanford were keen to learn more about it with the hope of finding ways to tackle it, but they were struggling to keep cells isolated from a patient alive in the lab. “We were throwing everything at them to help them survive,” lead researcher Ravi Majeti said in a news release.

    Blocking Inflammation For Too Long Could Be Bad For Your Heart

    Posted by: أحمد يوسف / comment : 0 , ,

    Inflammation is a highly complex process that can occur when the immune system needs to attack what it perceives as a threat, or if there is an injury that needs to be repaired.
    This generally involves swelling due to extra fluid bringing in cellular reinforcements and increased temperature to help kill pathogens. While temporary inflammation can be annoying albeit helpful, chronic inflammation is associated with a number of diseases such as cancer, Alzheimer’s, diabetes, and heart disease. However, a new paper published in Lancet Diabetes and Endocrinology describes a large meta-analysis that found taking anti-inflammatory medications for a prolonged amount of time may also be bad for the heart, raising many questions.
    The study was conducted by the Interleukin-1 Genetics Consortium and utilized medical data and genetic analyses from over one million individuals. In particular, the paper sought out variants of the IL1RN gene, which encodes the interleukin-1 family of pro-inflammatory cytokines. It had been suspected that the IL1RN variations inhibited interleukin-1 pathways, therefore resembling the effect of taking the anti-inflammatory anakinra for a long period of time.
    “Drugs such as anakinra are licensed for the treatment of inflammatory conditions including rheumatoid arthritis, but we know little about the long-term health consequences of blocking interleukin-1,” senior author John Danesh of the University of Cambridge said in a press release. “Our approach was to use ‘nature’s randomized trial’ to get answers currently beyond the resolution of drug trials. Our genetic analysis suggests, surprisingly, that blocking interleukin-1 over the long-term could increase the risk of cardiovascular diseases.”
    They found that individuals with the genetic variations were less likely to develop rheumatoid arthritis, which is understandable as it is an inflammatory disease. The risk of developing other inflammation-associated diseases such as stroke or diabetes were unaffected. However, the risk of heart disease—which is normally attributed to chronic inflammation—was shown to increase for those with the anti-inflammatory genetic variations, which seemed a bit puzzling.
    In fact, this decreased inflammatory response was connected to an increased risk for a number of heart-harming factors. These individuals were more likely to have higher levels of LDL (bad) cholesterol, more likely to experience an aortic aneurysm, and 15% more likely to have a heart attack. This is contrary to what they expected to discover, and it is not clear why that is.

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    When Is Your Kid Too Sick for School?

    Posted by: أحمد يوسف / comment : 2 , ,

    When I was growing up, the rule in my house was clear: If you had a fever, you were sick enough to stay home from school. Otherwise, pack it up and get going.

    As a mother with a child who had a chronic disease, I can tell you it was sometimes so hard to force her out the door when she was complaining of  an ache or a pain. Was it her Crohn’s disease, a basic tummy ache, homework that wasn’t prepared? With the latest measles outbreak, we as parents are becoming hypervigilant. How do you really know if your child is too sick for school?

    Experts at the Mayo Clinic report that the top four causes of missed school are:

    1. The common cold and ear infections
    2. Stomach flu
    3. Pink eye
    4. Sore throat


    The Cold Threshold: A Fever
    Colds are easily spread by contact with infected droplets in the air; ear infections can start with a cold and keep a child home from school as well. Colds are so common that if kids stayed home every time they had one they’d never graduate.  If they are coughing hard, which can spread the infection, or have trouble breathing, keep them home. Mayo Clinic pinpoints a fever exceeding 100.4 F as the magic number to keep your child home. Most ear infections clear on their own so gauge your child’s discomfort level before sending them on the school bus.

    Stomach Flu or Minor Tummy Ache?
    Stomach flu (viral gastroenteritis) spreads through contact with an infected person or by eating or drinking contaminated food or water. Children with stomachaches should stay home if they’ve vomited more than twice over a 24-hour period or have diarrhea or fever.  If the stomach flu came on suddenly with no other accompanying symptoms, assess whether they may have eaten something that didn’t agree with them. Also consider whether they may be constipated.  (Alternatively, perhaps there’s a math test that day for which they are unprepared.)

    Pink Eye: Highly Contagious, so Err on the Side of Caution
    Pink eye (conjunctivitis) can be bacterial but is generally caused by a virus associated with a cold. Both types are highly contagious. Viral pink eye will run its course, and bacterial pink eye can be treated with antibiotics. Children should be kept home while there’s pus discharge and until they have been on antibiotics for at least 24 hours.

    Sore Throat: Could It Be Strep?
    Sore throats, also called pharyngitis, are usually caused by viruses. If a sore throat doesn’t go away within a week and is accompanied by a fever and/or tonsillitis, consider strep throat. This is bacterial, so you’ll need antibiotics to take care of it. Send your child back to school after their fever is gone and they have been on the antibiotic for more than 24 hours.

    The Academy of Pediatrics Committees on Infectious Diseases and School Health recommend that a child with minor illnesses go to school unless they are irritable, lethargic, have mouth sores causing difficulty swallowing, have a rash with fever, or are exhibiting behavioral changes. When there is no fever, they can eat and drink normally, and they’ve had enough rest, the party’s over.

    How Not to Get Sick in the First Place
    Always check with your doctor if you’re unsure what to do, and use these tips to keep your kid in school:

    • Prevent illness by having them wash their hands often. They’re soaping up long enough if they do it for the length of time it takes to slowly sing their ABCs or, for older kids, the theme from Frozen.
    • If you have a question about your child’s symptoms, check with the school to see if anything is going around.
    • Let the teacher/school nurse know if your child is on antibiotics so they can screen for side effects such as diarrhea or nausea.
    • Remind your child to cover their mouth and nose when coughing or sneezing, and tell them that if they can’t grab a tissue, they should cough into the crook of their elbow.



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    Anemia

    Posted by: أحمد يوسف / comment : 0 ,

    Anemia develops when you don’t have enough robust, healthy red blood cells to carry oxygen throughout your body. The blood cells may lack enough hemoglobin, the protein that gives blood its red color. Anemia affects one in 10 teen girls and women. It also develops in men and children and is linked to some illnesses. 

    Low blood pressure (Hypotension)

    Posted by: أحمد يوسف / comment : 0 , ,

    Low blood pressure, also called hypotension, is blood pressure low enough that the flow of blood to the organs of the body is inadequate and symptoms and/or signs of low blood flow develop shock.Low pressure alone, without symptoms or signs, usually is not unhealthy.The symptoms of low blood pressure include lightheadedness, dizziness, and fainting. 

    What is Inflammation?

    Posted by: أحمد يوسف / comment : 0 ,

    Inflammation is part of the complex biological response of body tissues to harmful stimuli, such as pathogens, damaged cells, or irritants.Inflammation is a protective response that involves immune cells, blood vessels, and molecular mediators. The purpose of inflammation is to eliminate the initial cause of cell injury, clear out necrotic cells and tissues damaged from the original insult and the inflammatory process, and to initiate tissue repair.

    What is Pathology?

    Posted by: أحمد يوسف / comment : 0 , ,

    Pathology is a significant component of the causal study of disease and a major field in modern medicine and diagnosis.The term pathology itself may be used broadly to refer to the study of disease in general, incorporating a wide range of bioscience research fields and medical practices (including plant pathology and veterinary pathology), or more narrowly to describe work within the contemporary medical field of "general pathology," which includes a number of distinct but inter-related medical specialties which diagnose disease mostly through the analysis of tissue, cell, and body fluid samples.

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